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[Common sense] crystals and amorphous
Substances can be categorized into solids, liquids, and gases based on their physical state. Among solids, there are two main types: crystalline and amorphous. Crystalline solids have a highly ordered internal structure, where atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a regular and repeating pattern. This orderly arrangement gives crystals distinct properties such as a well-defined melting point, a specific geometric shape, and anisotropy—meaning their physical properties vary depending on the direction in which they are measured. For instance, an aluminum crystal typically forms an octahedral shape, and its mechanical properties like strength and ductility can differ significantly depending on the crystallographic direction.
In contrast, amorphous solids lack this long-range order. Their internal structure is disordered, resembling a liquid that has been rapidly cooled without forming a crystalline structure. Common examples of amorphous materials include glass, rubber, and certain plastics. These substances do not have a fixed melting point but instead soften gradually when heated.
Crystals can also be classified into metal and non-metal types. Metal crystals, such as those found in pure metals and alloys, are held together by metallic bonds, which allow for high electrical and thermal conductivity. Non-metal crystals, on the other hand, are usually bonded through ionic or covalent bonds. Examples include sodium chloride (NaCl), which forms an ionic crystal, and diamond, which is a covalent crystal known for its extreme hardness.
A single crystal refers to a solid in which the entire material is composed of one continuous crystal lattice. In contrast, most materials are polycrystalline, meaning they consist of many small individual crystals, or grains, joined together. Each grain has its own orientation, and the random alignment of these orientations causes the overall material to behave isotropically at a macroscopic level, masking the anisotropic behavior of individual crystals.
However, real-world crystals often contain various imperfections due to the conditions under which they form. During solidification or other processing methods, defects such as dislocations, vacancies, and grain boundaries can develop. These irregularities can affect the material’s mechanical and physical properties. For example, pure aluminum, when cast under normal conditions, forms dendritic grains rather than perfect octahedrons. Inside each grain, the crystal orientation is not perfectly aligned, and numerous subgrain boundaries and dislocations are present, contributing to the material's overall complexity.